Work

In his book Saving Capitalism, Robert Reich describes three categories that all modern work/jobs fit into: (Robert B. Reich, Saving Capitalism, Alfred A. Knopf, page 204-206)

  • Routine production services which entails repetitive tasks,
  • In-person services where you physically have to be there because human touch was essential to the tasks,
  • Symbolic-analytic services which include problem solving, problem identification, and strategic thinking that go into the manipulation of symbols (data, words, oral and visual representations).

In describing the third category, symbolic-analytic services, Mr. Reich elaborates: (emphasis is mine)

“In essence this work is to rearrange abstract symbols using a variety of analytic and creative tools - mathematical algorithms, legal arguments, financial gimmicks, scientific principles, powerful words and phrases, visual patterns, psychological insights, and other techniques for solving conceptual puzzles.  Such manipulations improve efficiency-accomplishing tasks more accurately and quickly-or they better entertain, amuse, inform, or fascinate the human mind.”

Many tasks in accounting, reporting, auditing, and analysis are related to symbolic-analytic services and involve "rearranging abstract symbols".

Shelly Palmer breaks work tasks down in another way. He points out that almost every human job requires us to perform some combination of the following four basic types of tasks:

  • Manual repetitive (predictable)
  • Manual nonrepetitive (not predictable)
  • Cognitive repetitive (predictable)
  • Cognitive nonrepetitive (not predictable)

"Manual" involves using one’s hands or physical action to perform work. "Cognitive" involves using one’s brain or mental action or a mental process of acquiring knowledge/understanding through thought, experience, use of the senses, or intuition.  "Repetitive" involves performing the same task over and over, the task is predictable. "Nonrepetitive" involves tasks that tend to not repeat, the task is not really predictable.

Predictable manual or cognitive tasks can be automated fairly easily.  Unpredictable manual or cognitive tasks cannot be automated.

He gives the example of an assembly line worker that performs mostly manual repetitive tasks which, depending on complexity and a cost/benefit analysis, can be automated. On the other hand, a CEO of a major multinational conglomerate performs mostly cognitive nonrepetitive tasks which are much harder to automate.

Computers sometimes seem to perform magic.  But computers are really simply machines that follow very specific instructions.  Skilled craftsmen, who wield their tools effectively, providing the correct machine-readable instructions, can create things that are indistinguishable from magic. But, it really is not magic but engineering which makes automation work.


Humans using tools amplifies a human's ability to perform work. Humans and machines bring different capabilities to the table.

Work involves applying effort or taking action for a specific purpose to create some sort of value.  Many types of work tasks involves collaborating with others. Work can lead to increased skills and gaining experience.

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